Jamestown 1607-1619: A Story of Tragedy, Turmoil and Triumph

In the history of the world, fledgling empires rise and fall, from the glory

of Athens, to the greatness of Rome, from humble rural beginnings, to the spiraling of preeminence with magnificent cultural achievements such as the Acropolis and the Colosseum. In the 16th century, Spain and Portugal were at their ascendancy with the establishments of far flung empires in Asia and the newly discovered Americas. These were peoples of great confidence, on the move who believed their noble powers would last in perpetuity. Little did they realize their flame of glory was fleeting, ready to be extinguished by new energetic challengers.

But the mighty empires would not depart the scene easily. In the late 16th century, Phillip II of Spain cast a plan to reverse the course of history. He would launch an attack on England, with an Armada which would overrun the English nation, conquer it, and return it as a follower of the Roman Church. But Protestant England led by Queen Elizabeth I had other ideas. At the commencement of the conflagration, the Virgin Queen herself would speak to her subjects and inform them that even though she was a woman, she had the heart of a man, the power of a King and therefore victory was at the English doorstep. Her words were to be prophetic. From the beginning, the Spanish plan went awry. The previous April, a successful raid was carried out by Francis Drake against the Spanish forces in Cadiz, Spain. This delayed the Spanish attack and allowed the English to make further preparations. In spite of this, the main Spanish forces would eventually set sail in order to link up with combat troops stationed in the Spanish Netherlands, modern day Belgium and from there the great crusade against England would begin.

But all grand plans are made in theory and the application of the order of battle would not result in a rapid Spanish victory but instead a great struggle between desperate opponents both seeking triumph. Off the coast of England, the mighty Spanish and rising English fleets engaged in battle but the result was inconclusive, even though it appeared the English had the advantage, but its fleet commanders retired due to a shortage in supplies. But much to the benefit of the English, a significant squall was unfolding which influenced the Spanish commander, the Duke of Medina-Sidonia to call off the attack and return home by way of circling around Scotland. Such an order by a novice commander would not only lead to defeat, but the undoing of imperial greatness. During this season, the northern winds were cataclysmic and the Spanish ships were battered by the destructive elements of nature. Sailors and ships were tossed about the sea. For all of the fighting which took place between these two foes, the greatest loss of life was due to the infamous “Protestant Wind.” Spanish ships battered by the great sea sunk to the bottom of the ocean abyss with countless souls clinging to hope of earthly salvation to their last breath and with this unmitigated disaster, also sunk the fortunes of a great empire.

In England, there was euphoria and the belief this was the island nation’s moment to strike out and claim national glory. The conflict with Spain had not ceased but there was new confidence and vigor about the future. The neoteric House of Stuart, who ascended to the English throne in 1603, ended hostilities with Spain the following year, but the newfound desire in domestic circles was to increase English power abroad. The Virginia Company of London, a joint stock corporation was formed or chartered by King James Stuart himself in 1606. In spite of this, it was not the monarchy who would strike out on the initial great quest of empire building but a private firm with shareholders who desired a return on their investment. It was finance, the desire for riches which animated the fledgling Virginia Company and in the ensuing months, a great spasm of preparations took place in the port of London.

In the latter part of the year, in December, the voyage to North America was to begin. After waiting three weeks for an English storm to subside, a moderate breeze appeared and the three vessels which had been prepared for the exploration, the Susan Constant, Godspeed and the Discovery set sail with 144 settlers and crew for an unknown destiny called Virginia. Captain Chrisopher Newport, an experienced mariner, commanded the Susan Constant, the largest of the three ships with Bartholomew Gosnold and John Ratcliffe heading the Godspeed and Discovery respectively. The captains of this expedition had an unusual plan. The course plotted would not be a direct route across the Atlantic to the destination of Virginia. Instead, an alternate course was created, one in which a longer, southern route would be utilized. The first destination would not be the coastlines of North America, instead there would be a stop for provisions in the Canary Islands, off the northwest coast of Africa.

The three ships caught their first glimpse of the Canary Islands with its volcanic mountains and rugged landscape. The sojourners were greeted by a moderate climate, a generous respite from the winter cold of England. The maintenance of provisions on long trips was often a murky task. Food would go bad, water would spoil, causing the survival of seamen and the journey itself to be in doubt, or at the very least, a high mortality rate. The voyagers to Jamestown were no exception and this was the primary purpose for a stop in the Canary Islands. Water and other necessary provisions were loaded on board and the ships set sail for the next leg of the journey to the Caribbean. This part of the expedition would not be without controversy because in the midst of this portion of the voyage, John Smith, who would go on to legendary status, was accused of mutiny and Christopher Newport, the Captain of the Susan Constant, who was the senior officer of the expedition, contemplated executing Mr. Smith.

But Mr. Smith would be spared and later on would find out the Virginia Company had appointed him to the Governing Council of the fledgling colony. In early spring, the voyagers sailed into the lush surroundings of the Caribbean island of Martinique. This islet was graced with ample precipitation throughout the year but the early portion of the calendar featured its least amount of rainfall. A moderate temperature awaited the sea goers as they docked their ship and resupplied for the final leg of the journey. In spite of the earlier drama, the mutinous allegation against John Smith, the voyagers were optimistic. Only one soul had been lost at sea and such it was hoped would be a good omen for the future. The ships pushed off from the Caribbean coast and made their way to the open sea. The last glimpses of the imposing cliffs of Martinique drifted from sight as the colonists prepared themselves for the last leg of the voyage. North America would finally come into view and a series of emotions were confronted by the sojourners.

As the ships made their way paralleling the Florida coastline, a fear of Spanish vessels was found throughout the prospective settlers and crew. Spain had founded a colony in St. Augustine Florida in 1565 and was poised to continue its colonial ventures northward. The Virginia Company’s instructions to its fledgling colonists was to prepare for Spanish intrigue as well as possible skirmishes with the rising powers and future rivals of France and the Netherlands. The company was well aware of the fate of Fort Caroline, a French fort created in 1564 for the purpose of advancing French interests in Florida. The Spaniards would have none of this imposition on their perceived territory and their European rival’s holdings in Florida were liquidated in a most brutal fashion the following year, in 1565.

As the settlers made their way past the Florida peninsula and up the North American coastline, the area known as Virginia was spotted. The 3 vessels made their way up the James River, about 50 miles inland. The Virginia Company’s instructions were to find a defensive position inland which would protect the new colony from attack from the European powers and native peoples alike. On May 13, 1607 the settlers docked and disembarked from the ships and the new colony of Jamestown was established.

But the colonists had in their minds images of El Dorado, the belief that Virginia contained a bounty of gold and silver waiting to be uncovered. There were riches below the surface beyond comprehension and England, like its Spanish rivals in South America, would be the benefactors. As the colonists dreamt of precious metals, a greater issue was making its way to the forefront. Survival was not predicated on the finding of gold and silver but procuring food sources and the Virginia colonists were slow to secure these stores. Each day devoted to mining and the hope of riches was a day lost in planting crops and preparing basic necessities. But sustenance was not the only issue because the location on the James River did not provide a substantial or healthy source of drinking water. All of the careful planning had proven all for naught as the colonists were not prepared with sufficient food or water resources.

But the fledgling Jamestown colony would not be built in a vacuum, an uninhabited area, devoid of other peoples. Instead, 14,000 Powhatan Indians of the Algonquian variety had made the Chesapeake region their home and the new residents from England were looked upon with great suspicion. The relationship between the new neighbors would certainly be capricious, ranging from exchanges in trade as well as gunfire.

By June of 1607, Christopher Newport set sail for England with both the Susan Constant and the Godspeed, leaving the sojourners to fend for themselves until new supplies and settlers would arrive. Newport also took a small sample of what was believed to be gold, the metal which brought England to the New World was now uncovered and in the English grasp. All held their breath in the belief that El Dorado was at their doorstep, but that hope would soon be dashed as all samples returned negative and the goal of replicating Spanish America now appeared to be fleeting. Back in Jamestown, as the months passed the food stores became scarce, disease ravaged the remaining settlers, and life became very grim for those souls who remained. The Governing Council proved ineffective as the initial President Edward Wingfield was sacked and another Council member George Kendall was executed for spreading discord. John Ratcliffe was appointed President but that did not alleviate the suffering of the colonists as hunger and despair spread. Those of higher birth who came to Virginia to mine a fortune of gold found themselves not only without precious metals but also without the basic skills needed to stay alive. Devoid of farming techniques and the ability to do arduous physical labor, these men were often the first to succumb to the grim reaper. With starvation looming, an attempt to secure provisions was made by John Smith who set out to meet the local Powhatans in December of 1607. The summit started poorly and went downhill as the local tribe seized Smith and threatened to execute the representative of the Virginia Company. As legend has it, a young princess Matoaka, nicknamed Pocohanas interceded on Smith’s behalf and saved his life.

Upon returning to Jamestown in January 1608, John Smith found the colony in disarray as hungry colonists considered boarding the Discovery and fleeing Jamestown. Fortunately, Christopher Newport also returned from England with supplies and additional settlers in January. Newport was surprised to learn that more than half of the colonists had perished and morale had disintegrated. After his arrival, to create further despair, a fire broke out destroying the buildings in the fort, including the Church. Creating additional havoc, the supplies which Newport had recently brought were decimated by the blaze. A temporary truce with the local Powhatan brought relief in the form of food supplies but a more permanent solution was sought. But what would this solution entail and who would be involved in initiating the process and negotiating the final settlement? Such a possibility led Newport, Smith and a young Thomas Savage to seek out another meeting with a delegation of Powhatan. As a result, the 13 year old Mr. Savage was left in the care of the Natives and one of the indigenous people was selected to stay with the colonists. It would appear life in the colony was improving with the temporary truce. In addition, the arrival of the supply ship, The Phoenix with additional settlers and supplies increased the morale of the colonists and the hope Virginia would become profitable.

Christopher Newport left for England in April, 1608 in the belief the situation had been stabilized and the Jamestown colony was reaching viability. But such an assumption would prove to be a miscalculation as food supplies became depleted and deaths started to spiral upward. In the late summer of 1608, the colonists sacked Ratcliffe as governor and elected John Smith as successor. In London, the governing board of the The Virginia Company had been critical of the day to day operations of the colony, wondering aloud why profits had not yet been realized. Smith would respond to the Company’s complaints by arguing the firm did not comprehend the conditions on the ground. Smith would rule with an iron hand, demanding back-breaking labor from all if they were to be given sustenance from the colony. But the colony itself would face a greater crisis than criticism from London because the years 1609-1610 would be the greatest test of the mettle of the colonists and its leadership. This period came to be known as the Starving Times as the colonists struggled from massive food shortages, drought like conditions, lack of drinking water and an encroaching Native population who believed their European visitors could finally be annihilated. Smith himself would be injured at the onset of the crisis in a mysterious explosion and forced to return to England for medical treatment, never to return to the Jamestown colony.

In the meantime, famine had stricken the colony and cases of cannibalism were recorded with one colonist accused of feasting upon his spouse, and who was subsequently found guilty of this nefarious crime and then burnt at the stake. Recent investigations by archaeologists combing the Jamestown site confirm the butchering and consumption of a teenage girl. Contemporary sources speak of wide eyed colonists on the brink of starvation, seeking out any form of sustenance that could enable them to survive this cataclysm. In many cases, desperate colonists boiled and ate whatever was possible ranging from horses, dogs, cats and rats. Attempts to seek out help from the Powhatan would often end in tragedy and death. In the fall of 1609, the former governor John Ratcliffe was killed during a mission to seek supplies from the local natives. This desperate trading party of 25 had hoped to secure provisions from the local Native population but the Powhatan evidently had other ideas as the expedition went awry. 23 of the 25 venturers would find an early demise and the the hapless Ratcliffe was held by the Powhatan and then skinned alive by the local maidens on the orders of Chief himself. The Colonists would respond by counter-attacking but such an action would trigger what historians have come to call the Anglo-Powhatan War (1609-1614). Virginia was now confronted with war, famine and drought

Assistance from England would be fleeting because the supply ship, Sea Venture, became shipwrecked in Bermuda in the summer of 1609, further contributing to the hardship of the people of Jamestown. Those stranded on Bermuda would miraculously build 2 vessels from the wreckage of the Sea Venture and arrive in Jamestown in the spring of 1610. They found a ghastly sight. Instead of a bustling colony of 500 settlers, these new arrivals found 60 ghost-like figures with hallowed eyes and little hope of earthly salvation. Thomas Gates, who had been selected as the interim governor of Jamestown had arrived on the Sea Venture. He made the fateful decision in the spring of 1610 to abandon the colony and return to England via Newfoundland. The relieved colonists boarded the 2 vessels, the Patience and Deliverance and made their way down the James River in the belief they had been liberated from this temporal hades.

Unexpectedly, a relief ship under the command of the new governor, Sir Thomas West, Lord De La Warr was making its way up the James River. Lord De La Warr, who arrived under the impression that Gates had perished with the Sea Venture, realized his mistake, then demanded the escaping colonists turn around and return to the settlement immediately. The relief ship maintained a year of provisions and De La Warr had devised a plan, not only to sustain the colony, but the new governor’s plan was to expand the settlement by waging war against the local Powhatan tribe. In the meantime, the Powhatan’s victory proved to be fleeting. Previously, they had cut off the English from farming and foraging, creating a state of siege which the Natives believed would lead to the final annihilation of the colony. Gates’ departure was a fulfillment of the Native strategy. But now, the colonists had returned and the Natives proved hesitant to attack, giving De La Warr time to prepare and organize his troops. The Powhatans believed a continuation of the earlier strategy would suffice because of the hope the colonists were still on the verge of collapse. Such thinking would prove all for naught as the new Jamestown army would be equipped and trained for battle. De La Warr would prove to be adroit in war as he ordered the technologically superior Virginians to attack. Powhatan bows and arrows were no match for the English musket and De La Warr was able to call on 150 reinforcements brought into Virginia through his supply ship. The Powhatan would fight fiercely but as casualties mounted, they fell back. This result would not be a temporary tactical victory but the beginning of a comprehensive strategy to increase the holdings of the Virginia Company.

The architect of this new aggressive strategy, Lord De La Warr would fall victim to scurvy in the early spring of 1611 and be forced to return to England. He was replaced as governor by Thomas Dale, but De La Warr’s military plan remained in place and the English attack would continue unabated. For the duration of the conflict, atrocities would occur on either side. The English would often blur the line between civilian and combatant and attack villages filled with women and children. Legend states the Powhatan taunted the English that their fate would be similar to the lost Roanoke colony, leaving the new Colonists to believe the local natives had a hand in the undoing of their predecessors. Furthermore, the Indians would issue calls for peace, delivering messages to Jamestown regarding the need for trade to sustain the colonists, but then ambush, torture and murder those English participants who arrived carrying an olive branch. This mode of conflict would continue until 1614. Soldiers and warriors would transverse the idyllic Chesapeake region with its towering woodlands which would provide shade and comfort the combatants as they marched to the battlefront. Arrows and bullets would fill the air as comrades and warriors fell, broken bodies, the splattering of blood would checker and blot the Virginia homelands, furthering the bitterness and hatred of the enemy. Such animosity would accrue and the war took on a personal tone as the opposing sides looked at the very existence of the enemy as the threat to the survival of the respective civilizations.

But by 1613 the conflict had reached its nadir and the English were seeking a settlement to end the bloodshed. Much to their good fortune, the English had been forewarned about the current whereabouts of the Powhatan princess, Matoaka, or Pocahontas, and proceeded to hatch a plan to capture the unsuspecting royal. Captain Samuel Argall and the Indian chief Iopassus of the local Patawomeck allied together to kidnap Pocahontas and begin the process of negotiations to hammer out concessions to bring peace to the Chesapeake region. As the talks continued, Pocahantas was being held at a new extension of the Jamestown settlement called Henrico under the guidance of the Protestant minister Reverend Alexander Whitaker. Here, she dwelled in relative comfort, made the acquaintance of the Christian religion and English habits, as well as meeting a young bachelor of newfound fame, her future spouse John Rolfe.

Previously, Rolfe became famous by English standards, infamous by Spanish law for bringing tobacco seeds to Virginia. It is believed Rolfe came into possession of the seeds while in the Caribbean but the truth is not known. If he had been discovered by the Spaniards, the penalty would have been death, but Rolfe was now in Virginia, and his plan was to use the English colony and its lands as a center to grow and export the crop to burgeoning markets in Europe. King James looked down on the growing of such a product, discouraged its use, but the demand for this commodity was increasing. Rolfe had dreams of financial grandeur and the planting of tobacco would provide the cash crop Virginia needed not only to survive but to thrive.

Rolfe was not only a planter but an entrepreneur who attempted to grasp the consumer habits of the English and European markets. In Virginia, Rolfe had access to nicotiana rustica, the native brand of tobacco enjoyed by the Indians but the Europeans did not find the flavor of this product to their liking. The Spanish flavor of nicotiana tabacum was much more desirable and conforming to their tastes. Rolfe, the fortune seeker responded to the demand, slowly increasing production, and by 1617 Virginia was producing 20,000 pounds of tobacco a year and this figure was growing. By 1638 that figure had ballooned to an unimaginable 3 million pounds. King James’ sentiments notwithstanding, tobacco became a luxury many English as well as Europeans were willing to spend their disposable income on. The intoxicating scent of tobacco smoke emanating from a pipe had become a fashionable trend which many desired. In Virginia, John Rolfe had been the genesis of this industry, with his newfound wealth, and new exotic wife, Pocohantas, he took on the status of a celebrity. The Virginia Company sponsored a tour of England for Rolfe and his betrothed. They dazzled the upper echelons of English society which included an impromptu meeting with the estranged John Smith. As Rolfe was gaining in fame, a growing number of English decided to try to follow in his footsteps by moving to Virginia and taking up the growing of tobacco.

Between the late 16th and 17th century, the population of England had doubled from 2.3 million to 4.8 million people. Generally, England was confronted with a burgeoning domestic army of unemployed young men wandering throughout English cities and rural areas. A restless population and a worried governing elite looked to Virginia as a way to dispense of the surplus population, which included those unskilled, illiterate and assumed not invested in the workings and prosperity of society. But the Starving Times, the elusive search for El Dorado and other bad news tended to make Jamestown an undesirable destination for those seeking opportunity and a better life. But the introduction of tobacco, the intensive planting and exporting of this commodity meant there were fortunes to be made and dreams of great wealth captured the imaginations of many souls. The harvesting of tobacco was labor intensive, therefore investors and planters needed to gain recruits as a means of maximizing profit. As time passed, those desiring to be indentured servants generally increased in number. These young male recruits tended to be between 15-24 years old, illiterate, unskilled with few prospects except possibly a gamble in the New World. To entice interest, the headright system was developed. A planter or investor would pay the passage and costs of feeding, clothing and housing a migrant and the worker would give 4-7 years of service to the payer. The time the servant would be obligated would be based upon the cost accrued by the investor. Of course the possibility of corruption loomed. Sponsors could deny or skimp on promised goods while servants could jump ship, run away or seek out a better opportunity with another sponsor. The headright system also included another important provision which guaranteed the investor or sponsor fifty acres of land for each servant brought to the New World. Because Jamestown proved at first to be a risky investment, potential investors were offered land in lieu of dividends. Land became a valuable commodity as investors traded these options or hoped the prospects of real estate ownership would land a large return over the long term. Upon completion of their service, the servant was often entitled to Freedom Dues which could include a parcel of land. Such was not universally applied and servants often fell victim to unscrupulous masters who would manipulate the system for their own benefit. But they came and they arrived in greater numbers.

This included 20 or 30 men and women who were taken from a slave ship headed to the Caribbean. These poor souls were exchanged for victuals but from this point on there would be no return to the mother country, and the Chesapeake region would henceforth be called home. This was the introduction of Africans into English speaking North America. There were previous ventures of enslaved Africans into Spanish North America but 1619 would mark the introduction of these peoples into the English speaking colony. Historians are divided pertaining to the role of these individuals in the world of the Jamestown colony. Many argue at first, these souls were similar to indentured servants. They would have contracts serving the duration of their terms and be awarded the appropriate freedom dues much like their English counterparts. There is documented evidence illustrating Africans who were the owners of land, growing tobacco and engaging in commerce. Other historians disagree and suggest the idea that Africans were similar to indentured servants is only a myth and their status was never similar to their English counterparts. By the 1660s, this would certainly be true. In 1661, Virginia legalized chattel slavery based on color alone which would be generational and permanent.

The oddity about the arrival of Africans in 1619 and the resulting bondage would be the ironic establishment of representative institutions in Jamestown in the same year. It is such an incongruity that two diametrically opposed concepts would be inaugurated in the identical moment. Of course if you accept the notion that at first the Africans were similar in status to indentured servants, then the historical anomaly is not so apparent. But by the 1660s, this debate would prove to be moot because chattel slavery was established in Jamestown, in Virginia as a whole and later throughout the Southern colonies. Nevertheless, representative institutions had been established in Jamestown and would flourish with the General Assembly and the House of Burgesses. In the original charter of the Virginia Company, it was stated the subjects of the Jamestown colony would have the same liberties as those persons residing in England. But it would appear the colonists had been living in a state of siege since the founding of the settlement. Furthermore, since 1612, the residents of Jamestown had been living under martial law as a result of food shortages and constant struggles with the Indians. In the latter part of the decade that situation had been alleviated, the colony appeared to be thriving and now a mechanism was needed to attract additional settlers.

The Virginia Company initiated edicts which allowed for the creation of a representative body, the General Assembly, later called the House of Burgesses. Twenty-two members would be elected by the free male population who were given the task of establishing the rule of law pertaining to relations with the Native population and regulating economic and commercial matters. The land requirement for voting was very low. The representatives met for the first time in the hot, humid, summer months of 1619. The Assembly, full of confidence, voted that the laws passed by the Burgesses could not be overturned by the Virginia Company and any edicts put forward by the London based firm had to be approved by the fledgling legislature. Such an act illustrated the idea that the people’s consent had to be taken into account and unilateral actions from above would not be tolerated. The initial actions of the House included levying a tax and regulating public behaviors. But the acts of the Assembly went beyond a series of summer meetings because it created a desire in the ensuing English colonies to have their own legislative bodies.

By 1619, the Jamestown colony had not only survived but it was thriving with a vibrant tobacco industry and the arrival of new immigrants to bolster the economy and support a growing new society. Few would have thought this was the genesis of a powerful North American English empire which would eclipse Spain as the great power of the 17th century and defeat France in the 18th for continental supremacy. Great Britain would become a global superpower with its navy sailing supreme in all the seven seas. But its power in the New World would be fleeting from its great victory over France in the 18th century. Britain’s victory and its ensuing policies would spark a great revolution of liberty in the 13 English colonies that would transform men’s minds and hearts first in the newly independent United States but then spread throughout the world and transform world history. From a sleepy provincial Republic would rise a great nation which would dominate the globe into the 21st century.